Ultrasonic Evaluation of Horizontal Defects

unhearable Evaluation of Horizontal desertsA Novel Method for Ultrasonic Evaluation of Horizontal Defects utilize fourth dimension-of-Flight DiffractionAbstractTime-of- feather Diffraction method (ToFD) is an amplitude-independent sizing method, which is establish on the visorment of time-of-flight of defacement get wisetop diffracted trembles. Although, ToFD fucking measure through- w alone duration of stigma accurately, this method is non able to measure plain come through surface. In this paper, a tender time of flight diffraction (ToFD) method for evaluating swimming two-dimensional defects is presented. The delimited ingredient method, using ABAQUS packet package, is apply to affect the inaudible jolt behavior in the shew immobilises and its fundamental interaction with the embed planar defects. The phased force engineering is in like manner utilise to model the supersonic inspection system parameters. FEM modelling of the radical ToFD method f or several(predicate) crevice sizings visualizes that, comp ard to the accomplished ToFD method, the accuracy of results is inwardly acceptable endure to use the unfermented proficiency for measuring the plane planar defects.KeywordsUltrasonic sway, diffracted thrive, flat planar defects, ToFD1. IntroductionNon-destructive testing has been increasingly utilize to assure the quality and dependability in the oil and gas pipeline industries. The ultrasonic caprice-echo proficiency uses the pulse flight time to locate the reproach and the echo amplitude to measure the defect size. Since the amplitude of the reflected pulses provoke be influenced by many parameters, such as disseminate spread, surface roughness and transparency, using amplitude is not always sufficient for accurate defect sizing (Krautkramer, 1990).The basis of the Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) proficiency was invented at the National NDT Centre, Harwell, in the 1970s. Time-of-Flight Diffraction wa s invented mainly by Silk and his co-workers at the Harwell Laboratory. It was actual over a period of about 10 years starting mansion in the early 1970s, from a laboratory curiosity into a civilize full-scale inspection method capable of detecting and sizing defects in components accurately (Silk, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1978)M1S2. The ToFD technique is an amplitude-independent sizing method, based on the measurement of time-of-flight of blur tips diffracted jolts. Golan and Sachese suggested a method to calculate faulting size from the time clog among the arrival of a surface longitudinal reference beam and a longitudinal or shear beam diffracted from the tips of ginger nut (Golan, 1980). Mak (Mak, 1983) unquestionable a trigonometric method to calculate location, h eight and angle of defect by a transducer located in diametrical scan military positions. The ToFD technique provides the highest possible accuracy in measuring the depth and through-wall length of defects (Cha rlesworth et al., 2001), (Baby et al., 2003), (Al-Ataby, 2012).In 1986, finite fraction simulation of ultrasonic wave times and its interaction with defects birth been conducted by Ludwig and Lord (Ludwig et al., 1986). The numerical analysis of wave extension service for ToFD in an austenitic stainless trade name specimen with consideration of the effects of scattering at grain boundaries was carried out by Lin et al. (Lin et al., 2006), and Connolly (Connolly, 2009). They developed an expeditious method for modeling the effects of coarse grains in austenitic materials. In 2007, simulation of the ToFD technique, using finite division method, was carried out by Baskaran et al. They use ANSYS finite element package to model the propagation of ultrasonic waves in a thin go gameed two dimensional specimen (Baskaran et al., 2006). In 2010, Honarvar and Khorasani used ABAQUS software package to simulate the propagation of ultrasonic waves and diffraction phenomena. They compare d fictive results for drilled-hole diffraction with photo elastic snapshots (Honarvar and Khorasani et al., 2010). Though, ToFD provides better accuracy in locating and sizing defects than other ultrasonic sizing methods and has a high probability of flaw detection (POD), only through-wall length of the defect can be heedful and the defect real size cannot be evaluated (Charlesworth et al., 2001). Therefore, ToFD method cannot be used for measuring and sizing level cracks (horizontal planar defects) (ASME, 2010). In this paper, a spic-and-span time of flight diffraction (ToFD) method is presented for evaluating and measuring horizontal planar defects. The finite element method, using ABAQUS software package, is employed to simulate the ultrasonic wave behavior in the test blocks and its interaction with the embedded planar defects. The finite element results for different crack sizes are used to study and examine the comportment and generation of different wave modes in the te st block and the efficiency and efficacy of the new proposed method.2. Review of conventional time-of-flight diffraction method (ToFD)The ToFD technique uses tip diffraction to identify the top, bottom, and ends of a discontinuity. Silk chose to use an angled compression wave for the ToFD technique rather than a shear wave, for two reasons. First, the tip diffraction signal is stronger than a shear wave diffraction signal, and fleck, a lateral wave is produced that can be used to measure the horizontal outer space among the vector and receiver.The tip diffraction signal is generated at the tip of the discontinuity effectively a draw source. According to Huygens (Krautkramer et al., 1990), a point source produces a spherical wave. mannikin 1-a shows a typical TOFD transducer set-up on a component with a tumid discontinuity. condition 1-b shows both the lateral wave and a diffraction beam from the tip of a reflector. There are four sound paths from the sender to the receiver. running A is the lateral wave path traveling just under the surface. Path B is the tip diffraction path from the top of the discontinuity. Path C is the tip diffraction path from the bottom of the discontinuity, and path D is the prat wall echo path. encrypt 2 shows a typical un-rectified received signal using ToFD. Note that the phase relationships A and C are in resister phase to B and D. The important difference to note is mingled with B and C the top and bottom diffraction signals are in opposite phase. This phase difference allows the practitioner to identify those points.M3 AssumingS4 that the diffracting tip is centered between the two transducers, the depth of crack tips below the inspection surface can be calculated from(1)M5S6(2)and therefore,(3)Where a is the defect through-wall size, d1 is depth of top rim from surface, d2 is depth of bottom edge from surface and 2S is probe separation ( reassure foresee 1-b). C is the longitudinal wave focal ratio inside the ma terial, t2 and t3 are, respectively, the travel times of waves diffracted from the top and bottom of the crack.3. exhaustible element modelingof time-of-flight diffractionmethodIn this section, the finite element method (FEM) is used to simulate the ultrasonic wave propagation in the time of flight diffraction technique. The FEM modeling consists of two basic steps specify mesh configuration and problem discretization, modeling of the transmitting and receiving transducers. ABAQUS finite element software package is employed for analysis and a two-dimensional four-node multilateral plane personal line of credit element, CPE4R, is used in ABAQUS to discretize a degree centigrade steel test block including good crack. See Figure (1-b). The mesh size depends on the frequence of the propagated wave in the sample and the corresponding wavelength. The piezoelectric angle wave transducer, transmitter, is simulated by a transient unmarried relative frequency pulse wave applying on t he surface of the sample. The transient annoyance is sculpturesque using a cyclic single frequency mash/force function as (Mardani et al., 2012), (4)where f is the excitation wave frequency and N is the number of cycles. utilize linear delay law for phased set transducers, the compressional excitations can be applied on the sequential elements so that ultrasonic wave propagates at a specific angle, S. The delay time between adjacent elements, or nodes, is calculated using hyphens precept (Olympus NDT, 2007) as, (5)where d is distance between two adjacent elements, s is guidance angle of propagation, C is longitudinal wave speed in the media and t is time delay between two adjacent elements.To investigate the overlap of the results and the appropriate element size for a 2 MHz frequency ultrasonic wave, the signal-to-noise ratio, SNR, is obtained for different element sizes. As it can be seen in Figure 3, at f = 2 MHz, the maximum SNR and SNR crossing occurs for the element sizes smaller than 60 m.4. The proposed methodAs it was mentioned before, using the conventional ToFD method in Eqs. (1) to (3), the difference between time-of-flight diffractions of upper and lower crack tips gives the defect through-wall size and the actual defect size cannot be measurable. This pith that the conventional ToFD technique leads to large errors for oblique defects and cannot also be used for horizontal defects. In the proposed method, a novel configuration and the corresponding canon are used so that the ToFD method can be employed to evaluate horizontal planar defects. Figure 4 shows the proposed ToFD configuration on the specimen with a horizontal planar discontinuity. As it can be seen, in this configuration, two transducers including a transmitter/receiver, No. 1 and a receiver, No. 2, are located at the both sides of defect.The ultrasonic wave propagation, in this configuration, is simulated using ABAQUS to study the behavior of ultrasonic wave modes in the test b lock and their interaction with the defect. In Figure 5, the different attendant ultrasonic wave modes are shown. The transmitting transducer, T1, emits a succinct pulse of ultrasonic wave, longitudinal wave, into the component and energy spreads out as it propagates into the specimen. If the crack face is smooth, there will be a mirror-like verbalism of the wave incident on the face. See Figure 6. For any horizontal planar discontinuity, whether smooth or rough-faced, diffraction from the edges of the defect causes some fraction of the incident energy travel towards the receiving transducers R1and R2 in longitudinal and shear modes with different wave velocity. As it can be seen in Figures 6 and 7, the mode reincarnation behavior due to the interaction of ultrasonic wave with the defect leads to the presence of longitudinal and shear waves from each tips of the defect. Moreover, three different wave modes, including longitudinal lateral, shear lateral and Rayleigh waves travel from the transmitting transducer, T1, to the receiving transducer, R2. See Figure 5.If the crack is large enough, the signals from the two end of defect will be sufficiently separated in time to be recognized as attack from separate sources. Therefore, using this configuration and the related ultrasonic wave propagation simulation, the time difference between the received longitudinal diffracted waves from the left-hand(a) and beneficial defect tips to each receiver, R1 and R2, can be employed to measure the horizontal defect size. It should be noted that the new method can also be used for evaluating the vertical defects. To calculate the horizontal defect size using Pythagoras theorem gives,M7 (6S8)and (7)where t1 is the arrival time of the signal diffracted from the left tip of the defect by receiver 1, R1, and t2 is the arrival time of the signal diffracted from the right tip of the defect by receiver 2, R2. CL is the longitudinal wave velocity and 2S is the separation betwee n the transducers.5. Results and DiscussionsTo investigate the efficiency and efficacy of the proposed method, using finite element modeling, the novel method is carried out on eight carbon steel blocks with different size embedded horizontal cracks. The test blocks suck 100 mm lengths and 2020 mm2 cross sections and are modeled with ABAQUS finite element software package using CPE4R plane strain elements. The acoustic and elastic properties of carbon steel are given in Table 1M9S10. Each block contains a horizontal planar defect. The defects have 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 mm length and 12 mm depth, see Figure 4. The transmitter is modeled as an 8-element 2 MHz phased array transducer. Each element of the phased array transducer has 0.5 mm length and the gap home between two adjacent elements is 0.1 mm. The original receiving transducer is located on the position of the transmitter and the second is located at 35 mm distance from the transmitter on the inspection surface, 2S = 35 mm. The ABAQUS finite element software package is used to simulate the new ultrasonic ToFD method. The received signals at the graduation and the second receivers are shown in Figures 8 and 9. In Figure 8, the first echo is related to the transient pulse waves, Eq. (4), generated by the eight elements of the phased array transducer using a specific delay times, Eq. (5), which receives at the first receiver, initial pulse. In this signal, the second echo is related to wave diffraction from the left tip of the defect which is detected by the first receiver, R1. The back-wall reflection from back surface of the block is shown as the third echo in this figure. Figure 9 shows the signal received by the second transducer, R2. In this signal, the first echo is due to the longitudinal mode of the lateral wave which travels from transmitter to the receiver 2, R2, and the second echo is diffracted wave from the right tip of the horizontal defect. Figures 5, 6 and 7 show the correspondin g waves propagated in the test block. Using the signals detected by the receiving transducers, the corresponding times due to diffracted echoes from the defect tips (left and right) are determined, and then the horizontal defect size is measurable using Eqs. (6) and (7).The new method is carried out on eight carbon steel blocks with different size embedded horizontal cracks. The measured crack size resulting from FEM simulation of each block is shown in Table 2. Comparing the simulated and the measured crack size results shows that the maximum error is %19.7 which occurs at 2 mm crack size. As it can be seen in Table 2, the measured crack size error is minimized within the crack size range of 8 14 mm and is slightly increased for large defects. This agrees with the conventional ToFD results which show higher measurement errors at smaller crack sizes (Charlesworth et al., 2001). Considering the simulated results of different crack size shown in Table 2, show that accuracy of the p roposed method for horizontal cracks, comparing to the conventional method for vertical cracks, is within acceptable range.6. ConclusionsIn this paper, a new time of flight diffraction (ToFD) method to evaluate horizontal planar defects was presented. The finite element method was employed to simulate the ultrasonic wave behavior in the test blocks and its interaction with the embedded planar defects, such as crack. The phased array technology was also used to model the ultrasonic inspection system parameters. manakin of the new ToFD method for different crack sizes, using ABAQUS finite element package, showed that, comparing to the conventional ToFD method, the result accuracies are within acceptable range to use the novel technique for measuring the horizontal planar defects. M11UsingS12 the new method for eight carbon steel blocks with different size horizontal cracks (216 mm) showed that the maximum error occurs at 2 mm crack length. Also, it was observed that the measured crac k size error is minimized within the range of 8 14 mm and is slightly increased for bigger defects.ReferencesAl-Ataby, A. A., Automatic detection, size and Characterization of Weld Defects Using Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction, PhD Dissertation, Liverpool University, p.95-96, 2012.American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Boiler and Pressure Vessel code, Section V, Non baneful Examination. Appendix N time of flight diffraction (TOFD) Interpretation, Article 4, 2010.Baby, S., Balasubramanian, T. , Pardikar, R.J., Palaniappan, M. , and Subbaratnam, R. , Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) proficiency for faithful Sizing of Surface-breaking relegates, Insight, June, Vol. 45, No. 6, p. 426-430, 2003.Baskaran, G., Balasubramaniam, K., and Lakshmana Rao, C., Shear Wave Time-of-flight Diffraction (S-ToFD) Technique, NDTE world(prenominal), Vol. 39, p.458-467, 2006.Charlesworth, J. P., and Temple, J. A. G., plan Applications of Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction, Engla nd, RSP Press , p.20-28,2001.Connolly, G.D., Modeling of the Propagation of Ultrasound through austenitic Steel Welds, Ph.D.Dissertation, UK Research Centre in NDE (RCNDE) Department of Mechanical Engineering Imperial College London, 2009.Golan, S., Sizing of Cracks with Scattered Ultrasonic Waves, Proceeding of First International Symposium Ultrasonic Characterization, p. 29-36, 1980.Hellier, C. J., Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, McGraw Hill, 2003.Honarvar, F., and Khorasani, S., Simulation of Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD) Technique by Finite Element Method, Online Workshop in www.ndt.net, September, 2010.Krautkramer, J., and krautkramer, H., Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1990.Lin, S., Futomi, H., and Ogata, T., abbreviation of Wave Propagation for the ToFD Method by Finite Eement Method optimisation of Test Configuration and Proposal of a New ToFD Method, Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 25, 2006.Ludwig and, R., and, Lord, W., Developments in the Finite Element Modeling of Ultrasonic NDT Phenomena, Review of Progress in numerical Nondestructive Evaluation, 5A, American Institute of Physics, p.73-81, 1986.Mak, D.K., Ultrasonic Method for Measuring Crack Location, Crack Height and Crack Angle, Ultrasonics, p.259-270, 1983.Mardani, M., Sodagar, S., and Rashed, G. R., Modeling of Ultrasonic Phased Array Method Using Finite Element Method, ISME2012, Shiraz, Iran.Olympus NDT, Advances in Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications, Waltham, 2007.Silk, M.G., Defect detection and sizing in metal using ultrasound, Int. Metall, V.27, pp28-50, 1973.Silk, M.G., Accurate Technique for Defect Sizing in Pressurized Components, London, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, V.3, pp155-162, 1974.Silk, M.G., Defect Sizing Using Ultrasonic Diffraction, British Journal of Nondestructive Test, V.21, p.12-15, 1976.Silk, M.G., The Use of Diffraction-based Ttime-of-flight Measurement to get back and Size Defects, British journal of Nonde structive Test, Vol. 26, p.208-213, 1978.M1please shorten this and delete repeated and extra information.S2DoneM3How do you see these in Figure 2?S4It can be explained by The maximum amplitude at first (A) and third (C) echoes at tL and t2 are dip (negative) and the maximum amplitude at second (B) and fifth (D) are peak (positive).M5Show S in figure 1-b.S6DoneM7Show all parameters in the figures.S8Done.M9Give all units in this table.S10Done.M11This is more like an abstract than conclusions. It adds cipher to the paper.S12Done.